Battle of Khanwa and its Consequences

           After defeating Mahmud Khalji of Malwa, Rana Sanga (Maharana Sangram Singh, Rana of Mewar), he advanced to Piliya Khar (a small river near Agra). Rana Sanga prepared to expel Babur at any cost, to restrict him to Punjab. Babur accuses Rana Sanga of breach of agreement. He says that Sanga invited him to India and promised to join him against Ibrahim Lodi. But Sanga made no move while he conquered Delhi and Agra. Many Afghans, including Mahmud Lodi, a younger brother of Ibrahim Lodi, rallied to Rana Sanga, in the hope of regaining the throne of Delhi in case Sanga won. Hashan Khan Mewati, the ruler of Mewat also cast in his lot with Sanga. Almost all the Rajput rulers sent contingents to serve under Rana Sanga. The reputation of Sanga demoralized Babur's soldiers. So Babur solemnly declared the war against Sanga to be a jihad. On the eve of battle, he banned the sale and purchase of wine throughout his dominions and abolished custom taxes for Muslims to demonstrate what a staunch Muslim he was.

         Rana Sanga ordered Babur to leave India. Initially he hoped to attain this by sending his man Sardar Silhadi of Raisen as his diplomat. Silhadi who went to Babur’s camp was won over by Babur. Babur accepted that to rule North India he may have to engage in battle with Rana Sanga and hence had no desire for retreat. Babur and Silhadi hatched a plot. Silhadi, who held a large contingent of 30,000 men would join Babur’s camp at critical moment of battle and thus defeat Rana Sanga. Silhadi went back to Chittor, told Rana that war is a must.

          Babur carefully selected a site, and firmly established himself at Khanwa about 40 KMs from Agra. The Rajput forces of Rana Sanga, supplemented by the contingents of Raja Hasan Khan Mewati and the Afghan, Mahmud Lodi and Raja Medini Rai of Alwar, met Babur’s army at Khanwa in 1527. Sanga's forces exceeded 200000 including 10000 Afghans cavalrymen and an equal force fielded by Hasan Khan Mewati. Babur's forces were inferior in number. The battle lasted for not more than 10 hours, was bitterly contested and became an exceedingly brutal affair. Sanga made fierce attack on Babur. However the Mughal artillery took a heavy troll of life and slowly Sanga's force were pushed back. At this juncture, Babur ordered his soldiers in center who had been sheltering behind their tripods to launch an attack. The artillery advanced behind the chained wagons. At Panipat, Babur's flanking parties which attacked from the side and rear as planned earlier. At a critical moment of battle, the defection of Silhadi and his contingent caused a split in the Rajput forces. Rana Sanga while trying to rebuild his front was wounded and fell unconscious from his horse. Rana's forces defeated after a great slaughter and Rana Sanga escaped. Rana Sanga, unwilling to admit defeat, set out once more to rebuild his military and renew war with Babur. He vowed not to set foot in Chittor till Babur was defeated by him. But he was poisoned by his own men who considered such a course to be dangerous and suicidal. With his death, the dream of united Rajasthan extending up to Agra received a serious setback.

          The battle of Khanwa secured Babur's position in the Delhi-Agra region. Babur strengthened his position by conquering further chain of forts in Gwalior, Dholpur etc. He also annexed large parts of Alwar from Mewati. He then led a campaign against Medini Rai of Chanderi in Malwa. Chanderi was captured after the Rajput defenders died fighting to their last blood and their women performed jauhar. But he had to cut short his further campaigns in the area on hearing of the growing activities of the Afghans in the eastern Uttar Pradesh.

Buddhism In Indonesia

          Buddhism is the second oldest religion in Indonesia, after Hinduism. Before the arrival of these two religions, people believed that nature had super-normal power. Trees, stones and many other such things were worshiped as sacred object. Hinduism came to Indonesia at around second century. The first two major kingdoms, Tarumanegara in Western Java and Kutai in Western Borneo were based on Hinduism. Buddhism came to Indonesia a few hundred years after Hinduism with the trading activity in the early part of 1st century between Indonesia and India. On the fertile ground of Southeast Asia, crossing cultural and national boundaries, Mahayana Buddhism evolved into a new kind of polytheism. These Indian missionaries took Buddhism to Indonesia at a time when the religion was declining in India itself and as Indonesians were ready to go beyond the confines of their indigenous belief systems.

          Buddhism reached its peak at the time of the Sriwijaya's dynasty rule, which rose in southern Sumatra in the 7th century and exercised a wide sphere of influence over all of Southeast Asia for more than 400 years. During that time, many Buddhist colleges and monasteries were built. Famous Buddhist scholars like Dharmapala and Sakyakirti were teaching there. Another major Buddhist kingdom was the Mataram kingdom, which was ruled by the Sailendra clan during the eight and ninth century in Central Java. Many Buddhist temples were built and Buddhist texts were inscribed on the stones tablets called prasasti during this time. The world famous Borobudur Temple was one of the most important temples built during this time. In the 10th century Indonesian students were sent to the great Buddhist university of Nalanda in northeastern India. Indonesians even went as far as Tibet for learning and philosophy. Sumatra remained primarily Buddhist, but syn-cretinism eventually appeared on Java, a belief system regarding both Shiva and Buddha as incarnations of the same being.

          Buddhism is an important element in Bali Hindu religious practices. Indian merchants first arrived in Bali in about 200 BCE. It was probably these people who introduced Buddhism as well as Hinduism. In 1275, King Kretanagara underwent a tantric Buddhist initiation to protect his kingdom from an expected invasion by Kublai Khan.

          During the rule of the Majapahit kingdom between 13th to 15th century, Buddhism and Hinduism coexisted peacefully. After the fall of Majapahit in 1515, Islam was introduced to Indonesia by traders from Gujarat, India. The influence of Buddhism started to decrease substantially after that, and was mainly confined to the areas of Eastern Java and Bali. The whole of Balinese spiritual culture has its roots in Indian Hinduism, Buddhism and ancient animist beliefs. Though adherents of Buddhism and Hinduism were enemies in India, in Bali the followers of these two classical pan-Asian religions lived side by side in peace, blending with and borrowing from one another. Archeological, epigraphic and literary evidence prove that Buddhism existed along side Hinduism on the island for about 700 years. 

Brihadeeshwara Temple - First Granite Temple of the world

          Peruvudaiyar Kovil, which is also famous as Brihadeeshwara Temple, Rajarajeswaram and RajaRajeshwara Temple, is located at Thanjavur in Tamil Nadu. It is one of the Hindu temple, which  is dedicated to Lord Shiva. Built by Rajaraja Chola I in 1010 AD, is also popular by name of ‘Big Temple’. It was finished within 5 years. The inspiration to build the temple came to Rajaraja Chola during his visit to Sri Lanka and is a result of a dream he had. This temple remains as India’s largest and Indian architecture’s one of greatest glories. The original name of the deity was Rajarajeshwar. It was the Marathas who gave it the name Brihadeeshwara or the Great God.

Brihadeeshwara Temple

          It stands in middle of fortified walls added probably in sixteenth century. Entire structure of temple is made of granite, whose nearest source are near Tiruchchirapalli, which is nearly 60 kms from the temple. More than 130,000 tons of granite was used to built it. There is one temple tower, which people call as Vimana. It is 216 feet or 66 meters high. It is also one among tallest tower in whole world in its kind. Kumbam, Chikharam or Kalasha, which is bulbous, or apex structure on top of temple, people believe that it is made out of a single stone carving.

          The temple has sculptures of exceptional quality like the dancing Ganesha, Ardhanari, Dakshinamurthi, Harihara, Adavallan (Nataraja) (on south wall niches), Gangadhara, Lingodhbhava, Vishnu, Subrahmanya, Vishnu-anugrahmurthi (west wall), Kalanthakamurthi, Durga, Brahma, Bairava, Kamantaka (north wall). But the most outstanding sculptures are found in the niches by the side of the northern entrance steps to the sanctum. They are the Chandesanugrahamurti and Saraswati. The bronzes of Bhogasakti and Subrahmanya are masterpieces of Chola metal icons. The Saurapitha (Solar altar), the lotus altar with eight deities is considered auspicious.

Huge Shivalingam

          The inner wall of the garbhagriha or the sanctum has sculpted with 108 dance poses called karmas performed by Lord Shiva himself. The Shiva lingam is called Peruvudaiya, Rasjarajeshwaramudvya. It is a huge lingam, which is set in a two storeyed sanctum. Rajaraja Chola crowned it with 12.5 ft tall finial of 9.25 kilograms of choppers plated with 800 grams of gold. The temple also has a spacious ground, number of pillared halls, shrines and 250 lingams. There is one statue of a sacred bull Nandi at entrance of this temple measuring about thirteen feet height and sixteen feet long. It is result of a single rock carving which weighs around 25 tons.

Nandi

Musical pillars : At the entrance of sanctum, there are two idols of Ganesha in the corridor. On taping the two, you will feel the sound traveling through stone in one idol and through metal on the other.  There are some musical pillars producing different sounds when tapped.

Shadow Disappears at noon : The shadow of the temple, which surprisingly never falls on the ground at noon. It is designed in such a way that the vimana does not cast a shadow at noon during any part of the year.

Vimana

Secret passages : A dedicated secret passage was created to connect different secret places (like the Palace of Rajaraja Chola and also to other important places) in hidden mesh-like structure. It is decorated with distinct features depicting Hindu history of India.  While roaming through secret passages, it is impossible to come back to the starting point, as no one knows the route to reach the inter-places meshed to each other. That is the reason, most of the underground and secret passages are closed for the public and archaeologists.

How Granite Stones were Cut, Carved and Customized : It is said that series of holes were created in the granite block. The holes can be deeper or narrower based on the requirement. Then wooden sticks were filled in those holes, water is poured on the holes. After a long period of time the rocks would break. And in similar manner, customized Granite blocks were cut.

Fall of Konark - The Sun Temple

          In the course of time Konak along with its temples and sacred spots have lost their glories. There is no proper justification of how long it stood with its glory and the causes of its fall. However, many speculations on this. The various speculations made, might be the cause of the fall of this magnificent monument are given below.

Now Visible Remains

From the construction point of view

Weak Foundation :

          It is stated that due to weak foundation of such a heavy structure the temple fell down. But as stated earlier the temple was founded on a deep gorge of a river to make it stronger. And also there is no sign of sinking in any part. So this argument is also not founded on good grounds.

Engineering Defects :

          As per the opinion of some Engineers, as usual with the progress of construction of the temple walls, its outside and inside were being filled with sand. After completion of the temple when the sands were cleared both from inside and outside, due to imbalance of pressure of walls the temple fell down. But many scholars do not agree with this argument, when they find the existence of a throne of the Sun god inside the temple. They also do not accept that such a procedure was followed in constructing the Sun temple. Besides there are historical documents that the Sun god was being worshiped in the newly constructed temple for a considerable period.

Flying Lion :

          Recently some scholars have advanced the opinion that there was a big image of a Lion which is called Flying lion on the upper part of the Sun temple just above the porch. Now the said image is found lying in the broken condition on the ground in three places. Due to placement of such a heavy block of stone on the temple walls, it imbalance the wall and the wall collapsed.

Load Stone :

          It is described that there was a load stone on the top of the Sun temple and due to its magnetic effects it was drawing vessels passing through the Konark sea resulting in heavy damage. In others view due to the magnetic effects of the load stone placed on the top of the Sun temple the compass fitted in the ships to show the direction, was being disturbed and was not functioning properly and it was a troubling task in the part of the captains to drive their vessels in right direction. So to make the shipping save, the Muslim voyagers took away the load stone from the Sun temple. This load stone on the temple was working as the central stone keeping all the stones of the temple wall in a balance. Due to its displacement the temple walls lost their balance and fell down in course of time. But such a statement has no record in history nor has got any proof about the existence of such a powerful load stone on the temple top.

From the Historical Point of View 

Incomplete Temple :

          Some historian justify that due to early death of the king Langula Narasimha Dev, the builder of the Konark temple, the construction of the temple had been left haphazardly. As a result of this the incomplete structure collapsed in course of time. But this view stands without any basic data. It is rather established from the records of Madala Panji of Puri Jagannath temple as well as from some copper plates that the 1278 A.D. and the king Langula Narasimha Dev reigned till 1282. Many historian are of the opinion that the construction of the Konark temple was completed between 1253 and 1260 A.D.

Hasty Completion Of The Temple :

          It is learnt from the Dharmapad story that the king Narasimha Dev had ordered the sculptors to complete the temple about a fortnight earlier than the scheduled time and also had threatened them if they fail to complete the temple within the stipulated time, all the sculptors will be heavily punished to death. As the chief architect Sri Sibei Samantaray expressed his inability, the king engaged another person to speed up the work in place of Sri Samantaray. Though the newly appointed architect  completed the work in the stipulated time, he failed in placing the Kalas (the crowning stone ) of the temple. Finally the Kalasa was set up by a boy of 12 years, Dharmapada, son of Vishu Moharana. It is evident, as a result of this impracticable order of the king many things had gone wrong. This resulted in weakening the placement of the crowning stone, which could not be placed properly according to the basic plan of the temple. As a result the temple walls collapsed being imbalanced within a very short period.

Mukhasala

From Natural Calamities 

Earth Quake :

          Some scholars says that due to earthquake the temple fell down. But there is no proof in support of occurring such an earthquake in this area. There is also no sign of suppression of the foundation of the temple at any direction. And such an occurrence could have been remembered by the people as they have remembered the story of Dharmapada, Ramachandi and Bishu Maharana. Nowhere there exists such a devastating statement.

Thunderstruck :

          The arguments that the temple was affected due to Thunderstruck is also not acceptable. Since the temple walls are of 20 to 25 feet in thickness it is not at all possible on the part of any  thunderstruck to disturb it in any manner.

From Folktales 

In-sanctity :

          It is stated by some that , due to suicide of Dharmapada on the temple just after placing its crowning stone, the temple lost its sanctity and considered as an unfortunate element and was thus rejected. But it is recorded in the Madala Panji and many historians are of opinion that Sun god had been established in the temple and was being worshiped regularly for years together. So this argument is also not acceptable.

Curse Of Sumanyu :

          The great poet of Odisha Sri Radhanath Ray in his Kavya 'Chandrabhaga' has narrated a story about the cause of the fall of temple. According to that Kavya, Sumanyu Risi cursed the Sun god for his ill-behavior towards his daughter Chandrabhaga, who committed suicide. Hence the temple of the Sun god fell down. But this is an imaginary story.

Original Temple Plan - Artistic View

And the Most Popular Cause 

Kalapahada :

          According to the history of Odisha, Kalapahada invaded Odisha in 1568. He had destroyed a number of Hindu temples in Odisha including the Konark. It is described in the Madala Panji Kalapahada attacked Odisha in 1568 and it was an evil hour for Odisha. Though it was impossible to break the Sun temple of Konark, the stone walls of which are of 20 to 25 feet thick he somehow managed to displace the Dadhinauti (Arch stone) and thus made a way for the temple to collapse. He also broke most of the images and other side temples of Konark. Due to displacement of the Dadhinauti, the temple gradually collapsed and the roof of the Mukhasala also got damage due to the stroke of the stones falling down from the temple top. At the time of measurement by the King Narasimha Dev, the Sun temple was in existence up to its Amalak sila, i.e. about 200 feet in height. Kalapahad had only destroyed its Kalas, the crowning stone and the Padma-dhwaja, the lotus finial and the upper portions. Due to removal of this crowning stone the temple lost its balance and gradually started to fall down. The stroke of heavy stone pieces caused considerable damage to the porch.

For the Construction of Puri Jagannath Temple :
       
          There was a big block of stone called Navagraha Paata placed in front of the Mukhasala. The then king of Khurda removed the said block to down and took away many sculptured stones from Konark and constructed some portions of Puri temple with them. During Maratha time, the outer compound wall of the Puri temple was constructed with the stone of Konark temple. It is reported that among all the temples the Nata Mandir (the Dancing hall of Konark) was broken intentionally considering it as an unnecessary structure during the time of Maratha administration. In 1779, a Maratha Sadhu had taken away the Arun Pillar from Konark and put it in front of the Lion's Gate of Puri Jagannath temple. By the end of 18th century Konark lost all its glories and had been turned to a dense forest. In course of time, the temple area thus became devoid of people being covered with dense forest, full with sands and filled with terrible animals and homed by pirates. It is said that even the local people feared to go to Konark in the broad day light.

Madala Panji - The Story-Teller of Odia History

          Madala Panji is the temple chronicle of Lord Jagannath of Puri. This is so called because the palm-leaf records are tied in big round bundles resembling the Indian drum (Madala). It describes the historical events of Odisha related to Lord Jagannath or Jagannath Temple. Though the actual date of starting of Panjis is not known, but it is believed that it might be started from 12th century AD. The book is a classic and literary master piece of the Odia language first order. It can be compared with Rajvansham of Sri Lanka, Rajtarangini of Kashmir or Burunji of Assam. The earliest use of prose can be found in the Madala Panji or the Palm-leaf Chronicles of the Jagannatha temple at Puri, which date back to the 12th century.

          Madala Panji has played an important role in shaping the history of Odisha by some historians. While writing Odia history, historians like Sir W.W.Hunter and Andrew Stirling considered the facts in Madala Panji as base. The Madala Panji was traditionally written on a year-to-year basis. On Vijaya-Dashami day, the Karanas (official history writers of Puri) involved in keeping the chronicle. This ritual is cited as a proof that the tradition of keeping this chronicle began with Odia king Anantavarman Chodaganga Dev himself. According to the tradition, Chodaganga created 24 families of Karanas to preserve the temple records. Of these, five were entrusted with the writing and preservation of the Madala Panji. They are:

Panjia Karan—preserves the Madala Panji
Tadau Karan—writes the Madala Panji
Deula Karan—enforces the Madala
Kotha Karan—the main compiler
Baithi Karan – assistant

Later due to the bulky size of Madala Panji, its content covering different dimensions related to temple management was divided into four parts :

• Bhandara Khanja Madala (maintained by Pattajoshi Mohapatra)
• Deula Madala / Karmangi Madala (maintained by Deula Karana)
• Deshapanji Madala (prepared by Deula Karana)
• Rajakhanja Madala (prepared and maintained by Tadhau Karana)

There are also five different categories of Panjis. No one has seen them all.

Raja Khanja - Records important events of the Rajas. Read on Paush Purnima (Pushyabhishek). Kept by Tadau Karan.
Desh Khanja - Records gifts of land and money and occasions when the Jagannath temple was plundered. Kept by Kotha Karan.
Karmangi - Records daily rituals. Important events related to the rituals recorded. Announced daily at the Beherana.
Dina Panji - The daily almanac read by the temple astrologer at the time of the Avakash. These were prepared annually and finalized on Vishuva Sankranti.

          It is said that the Madala panji was destroyed by the Muslim invaders including the so called Kalapahada, but it was rewritten in a fashion that mixed legend with history. The Madalapanji, the temple-chronicle of Jagannath temple of Puri, preserves a number of traditions relating to the Kesaris (Somavamsis), the Imperial Gangas, the Suryavamsi Gajapatis and the Bhois of Khurdha. Besides, all classes of records relating to Jagannath temple, it contains historical information, some of which, particularly of the Ganga-Gajapati-Bhoi times, throw light on the history. Its Sanskrit and Telugu versions are also available under the titles of "Katakarajavamsavali" and "Jagannatham.Kaifiyat".

Introduction of Buddhism to Japan

          Buddhism is considered to have been officially introduced to Japan in A.D. 538 when the ruler of Baekje, a Korean kingdom, presented a brilliant image of the Buddha along with scripture-scrolls and ornaments to the Japanese Emperor Kimmei. In those days, Emperor Kimmei ruled Japan with his court nobles and immediately controversy started over whether or not such a foreign cult should be accepted. The orthodox Mononobe and Nakatomi clans strongly opposed this new religion on the grounds that Japan already had its traditional and indigenous religion of Shinto. But the influential Soga clan favored Buddhism. They believed that it had much to offer for the enrichment of their culture. Thus in the end, despite the disputes that took place among the court nobles, the emperor deferred the matter to the Soga clan.

          About 40 years later, the pious Prince Regent Shotoku (A.D. 574–621) was appointed regent to the Empress Suiko, at which time he declared Buddhism as the official religion. Prince Shotoku was a great statesman and a devout Buddhist. He strongly believed that only with Buddhist teachings could he make Japan a unified and culturally refined country. In order to carry out his plans, Prince Shotoku issued the 17–article constitution in 604 A.D., which emphasized Buddhist and Confucian principles. Article II of this injunction reads, “Fervently respect the Three Treasures.” Prince Shotoku stressed that everyone should faithfully revere the three Treasures (the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha) as the supreme and unmistakable guidance. He also ordered the government to build many Buddhist temples among which the most famous is Horyu-ji temple, the world’s oldest wooden structure now standing near the former capital of Nara. It was because of his patronage and devotion that Buddhism was firmly established on Japanese soil.

          The beginning the introduction of Buddhism to Japan was highly motivated by political and cultural reasons. The court wanted to establish a system in which the existing clans could be consolidated. Buddhism offered both moral and intellectual benefits which Shinto lacked and it was these cultural learnings that attracted the court. Since Japan did not have a formal written language at the time, all of the Buddhist scriptures that were used were in Chinese. Thus at first, Buddhism was almost exclusive to the court families. However, the subsequent history of Buddhism in Japan demonstrated a gradual process of Buddhist acculturation downward through a ladder of social strata.

Coins of Ancient Odisha

          Coins play a vital role in the making of the history of a nation. The study of coins is known as Numismatics. Coins help in reconstructing the economic life of the people, trade and commerce, religion etc. Coins in Odisha can be grouped as punch-marked coins, the Puri-Kushana coins, Gupta gold coins, Nala and Sarbhapuriya coins, Srinanda, Kalachuri and Nagas, the Ganga fanams and probable Gajapati Pagoda.

          The punch-marked coins : The earliest coins available in Odisha are punch-marked coins which were in circulation between 4th century B.C. to 4th century A.D. These coins were profusely available in coastal eastern parts of Odisha. These coins were made of silver and copper and were irregular in shape and size. These coins bore the punch marks of sun, animals, birds, trees, human, geometrical designs etc. These coins could very well give a picture of ancient economy of Odisha.

         The Puri-Kushana coins : The Kushana coins and their imitations known as Puri-Kushana  coins have been found in large numbers being scattered at different parts of Odisha from Mayurbhanj to Ganjam. These coins were in circulation in Odisha for around the first three centuries of Christian era.

          The Gupta coins : The occupation some parts of Odisha by Samudragupta brought Odisha in touch with the Gupta empire. The Gupta archer-type gold coins have been found at Bhanapur, Khiching and Angul. These coins give an idea that trade and commerce of Odisha existed definitely with the Gupta empire.

          The Nala coins of the western region of Odisha : The Nala coins of the western region of Odisha threw light on the Nala rule in South Kosala of 5th-6th century AD. The peculiarity of these Nala coins is that the reverse is found blank and the obverse contains a humped bull with crescent with the name of the king in box headed script. The Nala coins have led to the reconstruction of the history of the Nalas. Even now the coins of Nalas are being discovered regularly.

          Other important coins of Odisha : Besides the above coins, many other coins which have shaped the history of Odisha. The Gold coins of the Sarbhapuriyas have helped a lot for the reconstruction of the history of that dynasty. The coins of Prasannamatra, Mahendraditya and Kramaditya help a lot in the reconstruction the genealogy and chronology of that dynasty. The findings of these coins from Chatishgarh, western parts of Odisha and Cuttack suggests that there was a trade link between Chhatisgarh and Cuttack via western parts of Odisha. The Srinanda coins have been found from Soro. A Somavamsi gold coin ( 9 th to 11 th century AD.) consisting of the image of Gaja-Laxmi have been found from Junagarh. The Kalachuris of the Western Odisha (10th-14th century AD.) issued varieties of coins in gold, silver and copper coins. These coins have been
found from Sonepur, Khurda and Jonk river valley describe about Ratnadeva, Prithvideva and
Gangeyadeva. The gold coins of Chhindika Nagas (Bastar-Koraput region) also issued gold coins. From their coins it is known that they ruled over Sonepur in 12th century AD. Padmatankas (coins bearing lotus having eight petals a he center) has opened new dimension to Odishan  numismatics. These coins belong to the Jadavas of Devagiri. However, their rule in Odisha is doubtful. With the coming of the Ganga rulers, Odishan coins took a new turn. The small gold coins known as fanams were issued by the Ganga kings. Those fanams are found from Angul, Cuttack and Sonepur. These coins bear South Indian influence. Some gold coins have been found in Karnataka. Those coins are also known as Gajapati Pagoda. These coins were in circulation between 13th-15th century AD. It is really difficult to assign these coins to the Suryvamsi Gajapati rulers. The coins have helped a lot in reconstructing the history of Odisha.

Gajapati Pagoda

fanams

Kingdom of Kosala

          Kosala as a geographical unit was existed in ancient Odisha. The earliest depiction of
Kosala is found in the Parisistha of the Atharvaveda. The Epics and the Puranas also throw light
on its ancient history. It was named after an ancient people called Kosalas. The kingdom of Kosala was divided into two units- Uttara (north) and Daksina (south) from very early time. The territory of Kosala is attributed to a mythical origin. According to the Puranas and the Ramayana epic, Ayodhya was the capital of Kosala during the reign of Ikshvaku and his descendants. Rama, the Prince of Kosala, being banished with his brother Laxmana and his wife Sita traveled south from Ayodhya to Prayaga. Travelling south-west up to Narmada valley, he came up to a place identified with modern Chhatisgarh area. He dwelt there for at least a decade. That region was named Dakshina Kosala (South Kosala), after his original homeland Kosala. The Ramayana projects the fact that after Rama, the kingdom of Kosala was divided between his two sons, Lava and Kusa holding sway over North Kosala and South Kosala respectively. Sravasti was the centre of political activities for North Kosala while Kusavati or Kusthalipura, near the Vindhyas, was regarded as the citadel of political power for
Southern Kosala. Kosala also finds mention in the "Vana Parva" of the Mahabharata. The great epic remains silent about Uttara Kosala (North Kosala) which comprised the Ayodhya region.

          H. C. Raychaudhuri locates Dakshina Kosala in the territory comprising the modern districts of Bilaspur, Raipur and undivided Sambalpur. The Allahabad pillar inscription of Harisena includes Kosala  among the territories of Dakshinapatha which were subjugated by Samudragupta. Kosala along with Mekala and Malava formed the empire of the Vakatakas and after their fall, it came under the grip of the Sarbapuriyas. Chinese pilgrim, Hiuen Tsang who visited Kosala in 639 A D. described the kingdom as 6000 li in circuit. As per the description, it may be presumed that Kosala comprised the districts of Bilaspur and Raipur in Madhya Pradesh along with the undivided districts of Sundargarh, Sambalpur and Bolangir in Odisha. Kosala remained under the Somavamsis in the eighth-ninth century A.D. At about the middle of the ninth century A.D. when Kalachuris of Dahala became a rival power of the Somavamsis, the latter had to shift the center of their political activities to Sripura which was captured by the Kalachuris subsequently. Then, the Somavamsis had to shift their head quarters to various places like Murasimakataka, Arama and Vinitapura identified with Murshing, Rampur and Binaka respectively, all in the Bolangir district.

          With the annexation of Khinjali mandala, Yajatinagara became the capital of Kosala. The
formidable Somavamsi king Yajati II brought Kosala and Utkala under one umbrella about the
middle of the eleventh century A. D., making Suvarnapura (at the confluence Mahanadi and Tel)
the capital of Kosala and Yajatinagar, (in Jajpur) the capital of Utkala. When the Somavamsi power declined away, the Telugu Chodas occupied Kosala towards the close of the eleventh century A.D. They were subsequently driven away by the Kalachuris who established their sway over the region for a long time till the Gangas established their authority over this region and their rule continued till the middle of fourteenth century A.D. The Chauhans rose to political prominence and made Sambalpur the center of their political activities. They became the overlord eighteen states (Atharagarha) comprising almost the whole Kosala country described by the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang.

Preah Vihear, a Khmer Temple

          Preah Vihear (Preah means sacred, Vihear means shrine) is a Khmer temple situated atop a 525 meter (1,722 ft) cliff in the Dângrêk Mountains, on the border between Cambodia and Thailand. It has the most spectacular setting of all the Khmer temples. Most of the temple was constructed in the 11th and 12th century during the reigns of the Khmer kings Suryavarman I and Suryavarman II. The temple dedicated to the Hindu god Shiva in his manifestations as the mountain gods Sikharesvara and Bhadresvara. Preah Vihear is the subject of a long-running territorial dispute between Thailand and Cambodia and several soldiers were killed in clashes in 2009.

          The Temple is composed of a series of sanctuaries linked by a system of pavements and staircases over an 800 meter long axis and dates back to the first half of the 11th century AD. Construction of the first temple on the site began in the early 9th century.

The front stone stairway : this main passage is on the North side. The stairway is 8 meters wide and 78 meters long. The fist flight has 162 steps. At the first landing there is a large stone singa statue on stone block. Another 54 flight of steps 4 meters wide and 27 meters long leads up to the second landing also decorated with stone singa statue.

The Nagaraj Courtyard : this stone-paved is 7 meters wide and 31.8 meters long. From here the stairway leads up to the first-level Gropura. The Stair heads are in the form of seven-headed snakes called "Ngu Suang" facing North towards the Prasat. The heads and tails of nagas on both sides look like ordinary snakes, characterizing and early example of this type of animal figures. The head portion of the naga on the west side looks very impressive because it is made from a single solid stone.

The first level Gopura : this is a pavilion in Greek architecture style with cross plan on an elevated, rebates angle base on each of the roof doorway. Stone lions are placed on each of the roofs doorway.

          An inscription found at the temple provides a detailed account of Suryavarman II studying sacred rituals, celebrating religious festivals and making gifts, including white parasols, golden bowls and elephants to his spiritual adviser, the aged Brahmin Divakarapandita. The Brahmin himself took an interest in the temple, according to the inscription, donating to it a golden statue of a dancing Shiva known as "Nataraja". In the wake of the decline of Hinduism in the region the site was converted to use by Buddhists.

          Under the Franco-Siamese Treaty of 1904 and 1907, the line of frontier between Cambodia and Thai along the Dongrak Mountains followed justice at the Hague officially found that the Preah Vihear Temple situated inside the Cambodia territory. The conflict between Cambodia and Thailand over land adjoining the site has led to periodic outbreaks of violence.

Curse on Shaniwar Wada

          Shaniwarwada is an 18th-century fortification in the city of Pune. Built in 1732 in the honor of Peshwa Bajirao Ballal Balaji Bhat for his great courage and triumphs towards the Maratha Empire. It was the seat of the Peshwa rulers of the Maratha Empire until 1818, when the Peshwas lost control to the East India Company after the third Anglo-Maratha War. Peshwa Bajirao himself laid the foundation of his soon-to-be residence on Saturday, January 10, 1730; hence the name ‘Shaniwar Wada’ which was an amalgamation of Marathi words, Shaniwar (Saturday) and Wada (residence). For the complex, Teak was imported from the jungles of Junnar, Stones were brought from Chinchwad and limestone from the belts of Jejuri. It was built with a total cost of Rs. 16,110 (an empire’s treasure of those times) and over two years later, it was completed and handover to the Peshwa Bajirao’s family. The structure which was once renowned for its architectural brilliance, is now dreaded for supernatural activities on the full-moon night. Locals believe that the fort is haunted by the ghost of Bajirao’s grandson Narayanrao, who was brutally killed on orders of his relatives.

Ill-fate :

          Even before the death of his father, Nanasaheb claimed his power on the Maratha throne and hold on Shaniwar Wada. Three of Bajirao's five sons who survived infancy death were, Vishwasrao, Madhavrao, and Narayanrao. After Nanasaheb’s death, Vishwasrao earned the power of throne, which angered former’s younger brother Raghunathrao (called Raghoba, son of Kashibai) and his wife Anandibai. During the third battle of Panipat, against a triumvirate of King Ahmad Shah Durrani of Afghanistan, the Rohilla Afghans of Doab and Shuja ud Daula, the Nawab of Awadh, Nanasaheb’s eldest son Vishwasrao led the Maratha Army, while his second son Madhavrao played the chief strategist. Some of his strategies backfired, which led to the killing of Vishwasrao. Holding himself responsible for his elder brother and Peshwa’s death, Madhavrao plunged into depression and later died due to deteriorating health. 

                          

          Following the death of both Vishwasrao and Madhavrao, their younger brother Narayanrao (only 16-year-old at that time) was appointed as the next Peshwa. Raghunathrao was assigned as the regent to take responsibilities of the throne till Narayanrao was minor.  This angered Anandibai even more. Narayanrao was aware of the bitterness of his uncle Raghoba and aunt Anandibai as well as their ugly fallout with his elder brother Vishwasrao. This hatred among them was fueled by their closest advisers, resulting in Narayanrao ordering Raghunathrao under house arrest. Anandibai turned furious after hearing the news of her husband’s house arrest and plotted revenge on Narayanrao. She planned out a vicious plot to free her husband and kill Narayanrao, simultaneously. She knew that Narayanrao had been having conflicts with the hunting tribe, Gardi. She convinced Raghunath to send a signed letter to Sumer Singh Gardi, leader of the tribe asking for help and capturing Narayanrao saying, “Narayanrao la dhara”, which meant ‘Capture Narayanrao’. Seeing this as an opportunity, Anandibai tweaked the letter, which now read, “Narayanrao la Mara” – ‘Kill Narayanrao’. On the night of the last of Ganesh Chaturthi, the highly trained and fiercest assassins were sent by the Gardi tribe to Shaniwar Wada. In the cover of night, the invaded the inner chambers of the palace and released Raghunath. They then headed for Narayanrao, who was sleeping unaware of what was happening. Hearing the commotion inside his room, he stood up and ran straight for his uncle, to seek his help. But, the Gardi assassins got hold of him and began brutal attacks on him, Narayanrao kept shouting, “Kaaka! Maala vaachva (Uncle save me)”, but no one came to his help. He kept wailing while the assassins tore him into pieces. Raghunath kept mute and witnessed the ordeal. Later Narayanrao’s body which was cut into numerable pieces was taken out in vessels and thrown into the river. Soon after Narayanrao’s death, Raghunathrao and Anandibai proclaimed their power. Later Peshwa administration prosecuted Raghunathrao, Anandibai and Sumer Singh Gardi.

          On February 27, 1828, a major fire broke out inside the palace complex which raged for nearly seven days, destroying everything that marked the legends of Peshwa household. Only the heavy teak gates and deep foundation of the fort survived. Till today, tourists and explorers are allowed to visit the outer chamber of fort during the day. At night, the place is deserted. Some locals and enthusiasts even lay out camps near the river bank to listen to the wailing cry of help of Narayanrao’s spirit shouting ‘Kaaka! Maala vaachva’ that continues to haunt ‘Shaniwar Wada’. Locals believe that because Narayanrao’s funeral rites never took place, his spirit till date moves in pain in the mortal world and his soul is trapped within the walls of Shaniwar Wada. It is also believed that once Kashibai’s best friend from childhood had cursed the prosperity of Shaniwar Wada, after her husband was killed by Bajirao on suspicion of being a traitor to the Maratha Empire. 

Mukunda Deva and Attack of Kalapahada - The black period of Jagannatha Temple

          The disastrous Bhoi dynasty was finally overthrown by Mukunda Deva Harichandana (1560-1568), a descendant from a Chalukya family. Mukunda Deva performed the Tulapurusha with gold and distributed it in charity, abolished the marriage tax and executed many public works, such as the building of the embankment on the road from Magra to the Triveni, still existing. Mukunda Deva also established 16 brahmana sasanas, the original villages of the brahmana families whose head members sit in the Mukti Mandapa in Puri temple.

          Unfortunately Mukunda Deva involved himself in the politics of Bengal, by giving shelter to Ibrahim Sur, the enemy of Sulaiman Kararani the sultan of Bengal, and exchanged embassies with Akbar, who wanted to annex the sultanate of Bengal. However, Akbar did not send any help to Mukunda Deva when he was attacked by the sultan of Bengal. In 1568 the sultan of Gauda attacked Odisha, sending his son Bayazid with the general Sikandar Uzbeg and the famous Kalapahada, who conquered Cuttack, while Mukunda Deva fled to hide in Kotisami (Kotismul). Raghuhanja Chotaraya, then general under Mukunda Deva, took the opportunity to declare himself the King of Odisha, and killed Mukunda Deva, but he was in turn killed by the Muslims. Two other generals of Mukunda Deva’s army, Sikhi and Manai, betrayed the King and showed Kapalahada a path through the jungle so that he could attack the army from the rear.

          Kalapahada’s name is still remembered with fear and horror by the people of Odisha. He was a Hindu of Brahmin caste of the name Kala Chand, who worked for the Bengali sultan Sulaiman Kararani. It is said that the daughter of the sultan, Dulari, fell in love with him and insisted to marry him although he already had two Hindu wives. Kala Chand came to Puri to consult the temple Pandas about his plight and to purify himself from the association with the Muslim sultan. He humbly prostrated himself in front of the priests, but instead of the all-encompassing mercy of Patita Pavana, the Lord of the entire universe, Kala Chand and even his wives received gross insults and rude words, kicks and other physical assaults from the priests. He was banned from entering the temple and having the Darshana of the Lord. Kala Chand had a serious crisis of faith not only about the priests’ mentality and behavior, but also about the cult of Jagannatha and the Vedic religion, that he now saw as a terrible fraud. He had no other option but to turn to Islam. He did it wholeheartedly and revengefully. When he came back to Odisha with the new name of Kalapahada, he was fiercely determined to destroy all the temples and deities of Odisha, and such was his ferocity that his mere name inspired terror into people. The history of the looting and desecration of Jagannatha temple is long, starting from 1510 with Hussein Shah, the sultan of Bengal. During the reign of Purushottama Deva, Jagannatha had to be hidden in the Chilika lake cave four times, two times during the reign of Mukunda Deva (1607-1622), once during the reign of Divyasingha Deva I (1688-1716) and again once during the reign of Ramachandra Deva II (1732-1743). However, the attack of Kalapahada was certainly the most violent. He systematically destroyed temples, chopping off the hands, feet, ears and noses of all deities and figures on the temples. He encouraged the Muslim soldiers to loot the temples.

          The Makhzan-i-Afghana, written in 1612 by Niamat Ullah, says, “every Afghan who took part in the campaign obtained large quantities of gold”. Niamat Ullah also says that Kalapahada also pulled down a deity of Krishna, had it broken into pieces and cast into the gutter.  Seven other gold images of various shapes which weighed five mounds each were also destroyed.” He also adds that many people including women took shelter inside the temple, unable to believe that the temple could be desecrated and occupied, but were captured”. Madala panji says that when the Jagannatha Deities were hidden in the cave in the Chilika lake, Kalapahada found out the place and captured them. Then he put them on an elephant and took them back to Bengal, where he hacked the Deities to pieces and burned them near the river Hoogly. Some consider this an exaggeration, saying that it was more likely that Kalapahada burned the deity of Jagannatha at the sea shore near Kujang (Chilika). It is said that a devotee named Bisara or Besara Mohanty collected the Brahma padartha, hid it into a mridanga drum and brought it back to Odisha at Kujanga Gada, Khurda, where he kept worshiping him with the help of king Narendra Deva. It is said that Bisara Mohanty had followed Kalapahada all the way and that he jumped into the fire to salvage the Nabhi Brahma, emerging unharmed from the flames in front of the astonished Muslims. Then, about 20 years later, in his 9th year of reign, Ramachandra Deva of Khurda had new deities made, retrieved the Brahma padartha from Bisara Mohanty, installed the new Deities, and brought them back to Puri. Niamat Ullah also writes, “Strange still was the fact that those who had carried off the idols as booty suffered from misfortune, affliction and disaster and died within a year”. Ahmad Razi writes in his Haft Iklim, “And believer or non-believer, whoever shows disrespect to the idol meets with instantaneous death”. He mentions one incident witnessed by his own grandfather, Maulana Lutful Ullah of Nishapur, who went to Puri with a number of friends and persuaded the priests to allow them to have a look at the idol on condition that they would not show any disrespect. When the party entered the temple, one of them spat towards the deity and he instantaneously died.

          Mukunda Deva was the last independent king of Odisha, as in 1568 the Karabani Sultans of Bengal incorporated Orissa into their kingdom. The Turks had occupied north India including Bengal and Bihar already in the 1200s, but Odisha somehow succeeded in remaining independent until 1568.

Sri Alarnath Temple

          Sri Alarnath Temple is a very important temple of Vishnu near Jagannatha Puri (23 km) at Brahmagiri, Odisha. Lord Alarnath is the representative of Lord Jagannatha at Puri. Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu stayed at this temple during anavasara, the two-week period after snana-yatra when Lord Jagannatha rests in seclusion before the annual Rathayatra. Lord Chaitanya couldn't bear staying in Puri without seeing His beloved Lord, and at Alarnath he would reveal the highest spiritual emotions, pining in ecstatic separation. While doing the Temple’s parikrama, one can take darshan of the incredible prema-sila (stone slab) of Lord Chaitanya, on the right side of the temple when entering the main gate from the road. This stone slab bears impressions from Lord Chaitanya's body. When Lord Chaitanya first lay in full obeisance before Lord Alarnath, the stone beneath Lord Chaitanya melted from his ecstatic touch.

          Lord Alarnath is an ancient four-handed Vishnu Deity believed to be installed by one of the Alvars. Lord Alarnath’s consorts Sri and Bhudevi also accompany Him. The temple also features small Deities of Sri Krishna’s queens Rukmini and Satyabhama. This temple was built by King Madan Mahadev in 1128 AD. The temple also holds a deity of Lord Chaitanya known as sad-bhuja, or "Six-armed," signifying Lord Chaitanya's identity with both Lord Krishna and Lord Ramachandra. To reach Alarnath, Lord Chaitanya would walk along the beach. The brahmanas from about fifty families take turns serving the Alarnath deities. Each family specializes in one aspect of the deity service, the tradition passing from generation to generation. Some families cook for the deities, while others offer the deities their meals, worship them, decorate them, and so on. The temple owns about sixty acres of land, some used for the deities and some for their servants.

History : 

          Lord Brahma Carves the Deity According to a local tradition, the history of Alarnath goes back millions of years to Satya-yuga. Lord Narayana spoke to Lord Brahma from the sky, describing in detail the form of a deity Brahma should carve and worship. Afterwards, Lord Narayana addressed Brahma, “Because you have worshiped me here, this place will be known as Brahmagiri [Brahma’s hill].” With the passage of time, Brahmagiri became known as Alarnath. The present temple was built about eleven hundred years ago, and the puja was previously performed by South Indian brahmins. Because the pujaris were in the discipline line of the great spiritual teachers known as the Alvars, the deity became known as Alvarnatha (“Lord of the Alvars”), which in time became Alarnath.

Folktale : 

          Once a priest named Sriketana, whose service was to offer prasadam to Lord Alarnath, had to go out to beg provisions for the Lord. He gave his young son Madhu the responsibility for making offerings in his absence after telling him to place Alarnath’s meals before him and pray to the Lord to accept them. When the time came to make the first offering, Madhu brought the food to the Lord and prayed, “O my dear Lord, please accept this offering. I am just a boy and do not know how to offer properly.” Madhu then played with his friends. When he returned, he saw that all the food was still on the plate. “O my Lord,” he said, “why haven’t You eaten? If my father hears of this, he will be angry with me. Please eat.” Madhu left, only to return and find the food still on the plate. With tears in his eyes, he again begged the Lord to eat. When Madhu returned the third time, the Alarnath’s plate was empty. Madhu happily carried the empty plate to his mother.

“Where is the prasadam?” she asked.

“Lord Alarnath ate everything!” Madhu replied.

For three days Madhu and his family fasted because whenever Madhu offered the Lord His meal, He ate everything. When Sriketana returned and heard of the situation, he scolded his son, “What have you done with Lord Alarnath’s prasadam?”

“He ate it, father. I offered it just like you taught me.”

“He cannot eat,” Sriketana replied. “He is just a stone deity.”

Sriketana decided to see what was going on, so he hid behind a pillar while his son made an offering to the Lord. After Madhu had left, Sriketana saw the Lord reach down and pick up a bowl of sweet rice. Sriketana jumped from behind the pillar and caught hold of the Lord’s arm, spilling hot sweet rice on the Lord Alarnath’s body.

“Stop!” Sriketana yelled. “What are You doing? Who ever heard of a Deity eating? If You eat everything, how will we live?”

Lord Alarnath replied, “O materialist in the guise of a priest, I never accept offerings from a faithless person like you, devoid of devotion. I accepted the offerings of Madhu because he offered them with simplicity and love.”

Today, the temple pandas point out several scars on the Lord Alarnath’s body where He was scalded by the sweet rice.

Tulasi Kshetra - Sri Sri Baladev Jew Temple

          Sri Sri Baladev Jew Temple is situated in the small town Ichhapur, in Kendrapara District, Odisha. Lord Balabhadra is the main God of this temple. However Lord Jagannath, Devi Subhadra and Sudarsana are also worshiped here along with Lord Balabhadra in the Ratna Sinhasan in the main temple. Idol of Goddess Tulasi in sitting position is there after the sacred seven steps. The Rath Yatra here is famous for the Brahma Taladhwaja Rath.

Architecture : 
          Construction of Baladev Jew Temple Baladev Jew Temple is constructed over an area of 2 acres of land. There are 2 parts in the total area, in one part, different temples are there and another part is a beautiful garden. There is a big boundary around the temple, which is 14 meters high. There are four main parts of Baladev Jew Temple are Sri Mandir, Natya Mandir, Bhoga Mandap and Mukhashala. The main temple height is 75 feet and width is 40 feet.

          The main temple has a 7 step construction and heavy baulamalia stone are used in this construction. There are other small temples inside the premise, where other Gods and Goddesses are worshiped. All the temples have a beautiful architecture and constructed in traditional way. The other important parts of the temple are Garuda Stambha, Ratna Bhandar, Snana Mandap, Mukti Mandap, Jhulan Gruha.

Baladev Jew Temple

Folktale :
          It is said that after the death of Baladeva, his dead body was transformed into a stone image
which was worshiped by Devatas (Gods) at the door of Patalapuri which is identified with Lalitagiri in Dwapara Yuga. The area extending from the Bay of Bengal in the east, the Lalitagiri and Assia mountain range in the north-west, river Baitarani in the north and river Mahanadi in the south is called the part of Patalapuri (nether world) in the Purana literature.When Kali Yuga appeared
and Buddha Dharma (Buddhism) spread over the area, the Devatas kept the image of Balabhadra in disguise underwater of the river Madhusagar which is now called the river Gobari. After Gopal Siddha Das discovered the image of Balabhadra near Siddha Sarovar, he worshiped him at Kendrapara.

History :
          The present shrine of Siddha Baladeva Jew was constructed during the Maratha rule in Odisha (1761 AD) of Ichhapur (Kendrapara). It was constructed by the king of Kujanga, Raja Gopal Sandha and Zamidar (land lord) of Chhedara killah, Srinivas Narendra Mahapatra. One saint Gopi Das and Sairatak Giri convinced the then Maratha Chief Janoji and constructed the Jagamohan, Bhoga Mandapa of the main temple, temple of Gundicha and compound wall.

          In the 13th century A.D., king Anangabhimadeva-III of Ganga dynasty constructed one temple for the worship of Lord Baladeva near the present Kacheri of old Kendrapara town, which is about 60 hands (28 meter) high for the worship of Lord Baladeva Jew in the heart of Tulasi Kshetra. The original temple was demolished by Khan-i-Dwina (1660-1667 A.D.), the then Subedar of Orissa during the time of Mughal Emperor Aurangazeb. He constructed one mosque on the foundation of the dismantled temple in the year 1663 A.D. Devotees took the deity in disguise in a boat through the river Govari and kept the deity secretly near Baranga (Chhedara) forest. Afterwards it was shifted to Balarampur village near Luna river at Samkhi Bata. So this place is also sacred for Hindus.  The original stone image (Manibigraha) of Lord Balabhadra was found from the Tulasi forest by a cow-herd boy named Gopal Siddha Das. According to his name, the name of the presiding deity Lord Baladeva is Siddha Baladeva Jew. The stone image of Lord Balabhadra and wooden idols of Jagannatha, Subhadra and Sudarsana are worshipped according to the rituals of the temple of Lord Jagannath at Puri.

Car Festival :
          Car Festival of Lord Balabhadra in the Tulasi Kshetra is celebrated on the 2nd day of bright fortnight in the month of Asadha just like the festival of Puri. He moves in a magnificent chariot called 'Taladwaja'. His chariot is 39 feet (12 mts.) in height and 24 feet (7.5 mts.) in diameter having 14 wheels. Two black and two white horses are fitted in front of the chariot. Zamindar of Chhedaragarh used to perform all royal duties of Puja like Chherrah Pamhara etc. but now it is performed by the successors of Zamindar late Radheshyam Narendra of Kendrapara.

Car Festival at Baladev Jew

Parashurameswara - Oldest Temple in Temple City

          Parashurameswara Temple is one of the oldest existing temples in the state.  It is believed to have been built around 650 CE in Nagara style and has all the main features of the pre-10th century Odia style temples. Parashurameswara Temple was built by the Shailodbhavas, who had Shiva as their family deity. The Shailodbhavas also respected the Shakta deities and depicted Shakta images on the walls of the temple. 

          Enclosed within a compound wall, the deul, facing the West is a square towered, while the jagamohana, instead of being a stepped pyramid, is a rectangular structure with a terraced roof, sloping in two stages. The verandah has projecting mould topped by a recessed frieze, demarcating bada from the gandi, a feature not found in later temples. The frieze has mostly amorous couples, separated by paneled jalis vidalas (a rampant lion, with head swung backwards, springing over a crouching elephant) at corners, a very typical symbol the beleaguered Buddhist faith.

          The jagamohana, adjoining the square towered shrine has an additional doorway on the South and four latticed windows, one each on the North and South and two on the West, the last, decorated with wonderfully animated bands of dancers and musicians. The recurring motif is the highly-ornate chaitya-window, very often filled with animal, human and divine figures, the last including busts of Shiva. The main entrance to jagamohana also has a fine carving of domestic elephants capturing wild ones. Set into the outer walls of the shrine, sculptures are scenes from mythological narratives, forming a repertoire of Saiva myths. At eye level in the middle of tower, a superb four armed Ganesha seated on a simhasana, with his trunk touching a bowl of laddus held in his lower left hand, while his upper left holds a parasu (hatchet); Karttikeya in the Southern niche is with a peacock, holding a spear in his left hand and a fruit in his right; the lintel above this niche illustrates the marriage of Shiva and Parvati; to their right are Agni (fire), the kneeling figure of Brahma and next to Brahma is Surya. 

          The temple contains depictions of Saptamatrikas, namely, Chamunda, Varahi, Indrani, Vaishnavi, Kaumari, Shivani and Brahmi. The temple is dedicated to Shiva, only two of the three original deities survive. The Sahasralingam, in the far corner of the courtyard, decorated with a thousand miniature versions of itself.

Raziya Sultan

          During his last year, Iltutmish was worried over the problem of his succession because he considered none of his surving sons to be worthy of the throne. After a lot consideration, he decided to nominate his daughter Raziya to the throne. In order to assert her claim, Raziya had to contend against her brothers as well as against powerful Turkish nobles, and could rule only for three years. She refused to be addressed as Sultana because it meant "wife or consort of a Sultan". She would answer only to the title "Sultan." Despite of very short, her rule had a number interesting features. It marked the beginning of struggle for power between the monarchy and Turkish chiefs. Iltutmish had shown great deference to these Turkish chiefs. After his death, these chiefs drunk with power and arrogance, wanted to install a puppet on the throne, whom they could control. They soon discovered, the tough woman Raziya is not ready to play their game. She discarded the female apparel and started holding the court with her face unveiled. She even hunted and led the army in war. Iltutmish's wazir, Nizam-ul-Mulk Junaidi, who had opposed her elevation to the throne, and backed a rebellion against her, was defeated and forced to flee. She sent an expedition against Ranthambhor to control the Rajputs and successfully established law and order in her kingdom. But her attempt to create a party of nobles loyal to her and to raise a non-Turk to high office led to opposition. The Turkish nobles accused of her violating feminine modesty and being too friendly to Abyssinian noble, Yaqut Khan. Rebellions broke in Lahore and Sirhind, Raziya personally led an expedition to Lahore and compelled the governor to submit. On the way to Sirhind, an internal rebellion broke out in which Yaqut Khan was killed and Raziya imprisioned t Tabarhinda. However she own over her captor, Altunia, and after marrying him made a renewed attempt on Delhi. Raziya faught valiantly, but she was defeated and killed in a forest by bandits while she was in flight.

Bahamani Kingdom during Firuz Shah

          The most remarkable figure in the Bahamani kingdom during the period was Firuz Shah Bahamani (1397-1422). He was well versed with religious sciences, very fond of natural sciences such as botany, gemetry, logic etc. He was a good calligraphist, poet and versed not only in Arabian, Persian and Turkish but also in Telugu, Kannada and Marathi. He had a large number of wives in his haram from various countries and regions, including many Hindu. He used to converse with each of them with their own language. 

          Firuz Shah was determined to make Deccan the cultural center of India. The decline of Delhi sultanat helped him as many people migrated from Delhi to Deccan. He also encouraged learned men from Iran and Iraq. He used to say that king should draw around them the learned person of all nations, so that from their society they might get information. He generally spent his time till midnight in the company of divines, poets, reciters of history and the most learned among his courtiers. His only weakness was his love for drinking wine and listening to music. The most remarkable step taken by Firuz Shah Bahamani was the induction of Hindus on a large scale in the administration. It is said that from his time, the Deccani Brahmans became dominant in administration particularly in revenue. He also encourage pursuit of astronomy and and build an observatory near Daulatabad. He paid special attention to the ports of his kingdom, Chaul and Dabhol, which attracted trading ships from Persian Gulf and the Red sea, and brought luxury goods from all parts of the world.

          Firuz Shah started bahamani expansion towards Berar defeating the Gond raja, Narsingh Rai of Kherla. The defeated king made a present of 40 elephatns, 5 maunds of gold and 50 maunds of silver. A daughter of raja Rai also married to Firuz Shah. In 1419, the Bahamani kingdom received a setback when Firuz Shah Bahamani was defeated by Deva Raya 1. This defeat weakened the position of him and compelled to abdicate in favor of his brother Ahmed Shah 1. Ahmed Shah continued the struggle for the domination of the eastern seaboard in south India.

Girnar - The Sacred Mountains of the Jains

          Gujarat has more Jains than any other state of India. Jains are the followers of the religion instituted by Mahavira in the 6th century B.C. One of the most ancient settlements is located at Mount Girnar (Revatak Parvat) where Jainist caves and temples stand on 3630 foot high spread over 5 summits. The site contains Hindu temples but not inside the Deva Kota. It has 16 Jain temples. The most important of this is the Temple of Neminath which contains black stone image encrusted with gems of the 22nd Tirthankara. The temple was built in 1159 within an enclosure onto which 70 cells face. It has two mandapas with domed ceilings and a grabha-griha surrounded by the pradaskhinapatha with pillars made from white marble.

          The temple of Tejahpala and Vastupala, two pious ministers during the Solanki dynasty that built the temple in 1230, is composed of a large mandapa onto which three cells open: the eastern cell is dedicated to Mallinatha, the 19th Tirthankara; the southern cell is dedicated to the holy Jain mountain Parasnatha, while the northern cell is dedicated to the mythical mount Meru on a square plinth. Outside the enclosing walls and almost at the top of the mountain stands the Temple of Amba Devi.

          The most famous holy city in the Jain world is Palitana, a symbol of ascetics and  a destination for pilgrims. Palitana includes 800 temples and 7000 images on the sacred hill of Satrunjaya. The temples are spread over two hilltops inside eleven solid defensive walls. Mostly constructed during 9th-10th century, then destroyed by Moslems and rebuilt in 15th century. Surprisingly, within the perimeter walls, there is a tomb of Moslem holy man, who is said to be protected the site. The typical structure of the temples at Palitana includes an enclosing wall in which the chapels of Tirthankaras are built. The typical temple will have an ardhamandapa with festooned arches, highly decorated  mandapa with a magnificent ceilings and a garbha-griha topped with a shikhara and angashikhara. Another typical feature of Palitana which is rare in India is the two or more story temple with a chaturmukha cell. The Chaumukh temple of Adinatha, built in 1618 with a cell open on four sides facing the four cardinal points is based on this plan. The cell is connected to the mandapa on the eastern side and holds a statue of the 1st Tirthankara, Adinatha whose four faces turned towards all religions of the universe. The principal temple on the site is that of Adishvara. It is made from arsa (the local marble), is also dedicated to 1st Tirthankara. It was originally build in 960, but rebuilt in 1530 after destroyed by Moslems. The two story temple is enclosed by a wall containing chapels. Recent constructions include intricate marquetry on window screens or mandapa walls, floor mosaics, floral decorations, statues reveal the genius and faith of local artists. The white marble statutes of the Tirthankara, especially their wide open eyes are made from glass paste with silver pupils to give the prophets the crystal transparency of the enlightened.