Ming China

          In the 1300s, the Mongol grip on China weakened. A revolt drove out the last Yuan emperor. In 1368, a Buddhist monk calling himself Ming Hong Wu became China's new ruler. The Ming dynasty ruled China for 300 years. Under Ming Hong Wu, Chinese self-confidence and national pride returned. Being an able and efficient ruler, he established peace and prosperity. He reformed Chinese society by slavery, confiscating large estates and redistributing them among poor and demanding higher taxes from the rich. China began to reassert its power over neighbors and its strong army was able to fight with foreign attacks.

Hong Wu

          After the dynasty's founder, the Hung Wu emperor, the Ming dynasty's most famous ruler was the emperor Cheng Zu (Yung-lo)  known as "The Consolidator," who ruled from 1403 to 1424. He  undertook to incorporate  South and Southeast Asia into China's tribute system. This tribute system was based on the overlord-vassal relationship between the ruler of China and the rulers of other countries expressed by the traditional cultural view that saw China as the largest and oldest state in the world.

          Chinese soldiers defended their empire against foreigners such as Japanese warlords, who tried to invade Korea in 1590s, but later withdrew.  They used Crossbow. An arrow fired from a powerful Chinese artillery Crossbow could travel up to 200m and pierce a wooden shield. They also developed a number of indigenous weapons including gun powder rockets and bombs. At sea, Chinese ships (largest in the world during that period) made a series of voyages during 1400s as far as Africa and Arabia. The fleets were commanded by admiral Zheng He. Zheng He is described in Chinese historical records as tall and heavy, with clear-cut features and long ear lobes; a stride like a tiger's and voice clear and vibrant. He was well liked and admired for his quick wit in argument. He was famous as a brave soldier

          Ming period was one of the great creativity. Ming emperors supported arts and built many fine palaces. From 1421 they lived within the forbidden city of Beijing, a huge complex of palaces, temples and parks. Foreigners and most Chinese were not allowed inside the city. Only the emperor's family, the officials and servants of the royal household were permitted. The third emperor Yung Lo made Beijing his capital in 1421. The emperor lived their secluded from both foreigners and his own people.

          China's first contacts with European traders began in the 1500s, when Portugeese ships arrived. By 1557, the Portugeese had set up a trading settlement in Macao. Western traders were eager to buy porcelain, silk and tea. Tea was a new drink for Europeans. It first reached Europe in 1610. The Chinese had seldom looked far beyond their borders and after the mid fifteenth century, the government banned voyages overseas. Ming rulers regarded China as center of the world. Their rule weakened in the early sixteenth century and ended in 1644.

The Franks

          The Franks were the strongest of all the Western European people who struggled for land and power after the end of the Roman empire in 476. Under their first great leader, Clovis, the Franks spread out from their homeland around the river Rhine (in what is now in Germany). They fought their neighbors such as the Visigoths and Burgundians until by 540, they had conquered most of the old Roman province of Gaul (modern France which is named after Franks). Clovis defeated rival chieftains to bring all the Frankish tribe under his control. His family became known as the Merovingian dynasty, after his grandfather Merovich. 

Clovis

          Frankish leaders were always ready to defend their lands and conquer new one. Their eagerness to to ride into battle meant they needed servants for military service. In return, the servants were granted land. This was the beginning of feudalism. Leading families jockeyed for the king's favor. In 600s two rival clans Austrasians fought Neustrians. The Austrasians ousted their counterpart and their chief, Pepin of Herstal, founded a new ruling family. Pepin's son Charles Martel, also known as Hammer won an historic battle at Poitiers against Muslim invaders in 732. This defeat checked the advance of Islam into central Europe. Martel's son, Pepin the short established the new Carolingian dynasty.  He was the first Frankish king appointed by Pope in 754. But the greatest of the Frankish rulers was Pepin's son, Charlemagne.

Charles Martel

          The Franks were farmers. They tilled their fields in strips using wheeled ploughs pulled by oxen. Tough Frankish warriors rode into battle with shaven heads and topknots, wearing light armor. Their skill with the axe, the common Germanic spear and shield, and above all their bravery made the many warriors of the Franks some of the most powerful of their time. They were formidable  cavalry fighters, whose loyalty was rewarded with booty. Frankish army defeated the Romans, Gouls and Visigoths who tried to halt their expansion.

Frankish Fighters

The Rise of Islam

          The new faith preached by the prophet Muhammed in 600s changed the course of History. Muhammed's followers spread their religion, Islam, by preaching and conquest. By the 700s, Muslims (follower of Islam) ruled most of the Middle East and North Africa. Before Muhammed, the Arab people were not united in any way. Different groups worshipped different gods. Muhammed was a merchant of Mecca, in Arabia. At the age of 40, he began to preach of belief on one God, after a dream in which an angel told him he was the prophet of Allah (God). The new religion became Islam, which means "submission to the will of Allah".

          Muhammed had to leave Mecca when some townspeople objected to his new teaching. His journey in 622 to Yathrib (now Medina) is commemorated still as the Hegira, which begins the Muslim calendar. In Medina, Muhammed and his followers built the first mosque. His teachings and revelations were written down in Koran, the holy book of Islam. In 630, Muhammed's followers captured Mecca and Islam became the new religion of Arabia. When Muhammed died in 632, his father-in-law, Abu Bakr, was chosen as first caliph. Muslims believe Muhammed ascended to heaven from the rock to speak with God, before returning to earth and spread Islam. A group called the Shiites thought only the descendants of Muhammed's daughter Fatima could lead Islam. Others, known as Sunnis, thought any Muslim could do so. This split continues today.

          By 644 the Arabs had conquered most of Syria, Palestine and Persia. After 661, the Ummayad, family controlled the growing empire from the capital, Damascus, in Syria. Islam's advance into Europe was halted by the Frankish army of Charles Martel in 732. In 762, the new Abbasid dynasty moved the empire's capital to Baghdad. This city became the center of of the Islamic world. Harun al-rashid, was caliph from 786. The power of the Abbasid dynasty of caliphs peaked during his reign.

Causes of Kalinga War

          The Kalinga war was a milestone in the splendid career of Emperor Ashoka. It took place in 261 B.C. eight years after the coronation of Ashoka. A detailed account of this war is known from Rock Edict XIII found at Shahbazgarh in Pakistan. Kalinga was under the suzerainty of Magadha till
Dhana Nanda. It probably slipped away from the fold of Magadha when Kautilya and Chandragupta Maurya revolted against the Nandas around 322-321 B.C. Neither Chandragupta Maurya nor Bindusara never fought with the people of Kalinga. So, it was a historic necessity on the part of Ashoka to conquer Kalinga. The Kalinga war had far reaching results which made lasting impact on mankind. There was huge loss of man and material in the Kalinga war. In this war 150,000 soldiers from the side of Kalinga were taken as prisoners by Ashoka and 100,000 were slain and many others died of injuries and epidemic after the war. Equal number of mauryan soldiers were killed. With the victory of Ashoka in the Kalinga war, Kalinga was annexed to Magadhan empire and it constituted its fifth province.There are several causes of the Kalinga war, which changed the mind of Ashoka.

Powerful neighbor : 

The Magadhan Empire during Ashoka had surrounded Kalinga in the north, west and south. Existence of Kalinga as a powerful neighbor on the border of Magadha was definitely a threat to the power and potentiality of the latter. Thus, Kalinga posed a menace to the grand Magadhan empire. Before Kalinga rose to that extent, Ashoka wanted to defeat and capture it.

Economic prosperity of Kalinga :

There were certain economic factors which had created rivalry between Kalinga and Magadha.
Kalinga monopolized the oversea trade in the Indian ocean and gained vast wealth. Her wealth
also increased from inland trade. Through the Mauryas had foreign relation with the contemporary Hellenistic powers, they had not maintained commercial relation with them. It may also be pointed out that the Mauryas by that time had not built up a naval power and the Navadhyaksha (Superintendent of Shipping) mentioned by Kautilya in his Arthasastra was in charge of policing the rivers, lakes and seashores rather than building ships for maritime trades.

Commercial factor :

In trade and commerce, Kalinga was a great competitor of Magadha. Important trade-routes from the Gangetic valley to the Deccan and further south passed through Kalinga facilitating her trade and commerce. Though, Magadha had foreign relation and huge internal resources, it suffered from a commercial crisis due to the lack of trade routes. The existence of flourishing Kalinga with her trade and commerce was adversely affecting the economy of the Mauryan empire.

Imperialistic design of Ashoka :

Asoka's invasion of Kalinga in 261 B.C. appears to have been actuated by his imperialistic designs. By the time of Asoka's accession the Magadhan Empire had spread over most parts of India. From the Himalayas in the north to Mysore in the south and from the Kabul valley in the north-west to Bengal in the east, the whole territory was under the sovereignty of Ashoka. An independent kingdom of Kalinga, not very far from the center of Magadhan empire, was intolerable for a warlike-king like Chandasoka.

Stealing of Ashoka's jewels by the Nagas :

According to the description of Lama Taranath, a Tibetan author, the Nagas stole away the jewels of Ashoka. So, the emperor became angry and conquered their territory. These Nagas were identified with the seafaring people of Kalinga. In order to take revenge, Ashoka invaded Kalinga.

Legend of Karuvaki :

A strange story regarding the cause of Kalinga war prevails among the fisherman community of
the eastern coast of Odisha. According to this, Ashoka invaded Kalinga being infatuated by the beauty of Karuvaki, the daughter of a fisherman and the fiancee of the crown prince of Kalinga.
Though this fact appears absurd, but it cannot be rejected outright because from the Queen's31
Edict, it is known that Ashoka had a queen named Karuvaki who was the mother of Tivara, a son
of Ashoka.

Religious factor :

Religion was another potential factor for Ashoka's invasion of Kalinga. Before Kalinga War, Ashoka was a devout Saiva. Though, it is difficult to ascertain what was the prevalent form of religion in Kalinga, with tolerable degree of certainty, it can be stated that Buddhism and not Brahminism (Saivism) was prevailing in Kalinga. Asoka might have decided to wage a holy war against Kalinga to teach the Buddhists a lesson. Though, nothing concrete is available to the historians regarding this.

Mongols - The Invaders

          The Mongols lived on the plains of Central Asia, from the Ural mountains to the Gobi desert. They were nomads, wandering with their herds and living in portable tents. Their leaders were called khans. In 1206, Temujin Khan brought all the tribes under his rule and was proclaimed Genghis Khan. It means "lord of all". In his lifetime, he seized an empire that extended from the Pacific Ocean to the river Danube incorporating Persian empire. The capital was Karakorum. Genghis Khan was ruthless in battle, but kept peace in his empire and ruled fairly. Trade flourished during his rule. The Mongols continued their attacks after death of Genghis Khan. Mongol army led by Batu Khan, one of the Genghis's sons, invaded Russia. In Europe, people panicked as word spread of the Mongol's speed and ferocity in battle.

Genghis Khan

          Mongols preferred to fight on horseback. Warriors controlled their horses with their feet, leaving their hands free to shoot bows and hurl spears. Mongol cavalry charges usually overwhelmed the enemy. Mongol soldiers traveled with five horses each and were expert with bows and lances. In victory, they were merciless, slaughtering the people of a city and carting away treasures. Western Europe was saved only when the Mongols turned homeward on the death of their leader Ogadai Khan in 1241. Mongol armies sent a shockwave of fear around Asia and Europe, conquering a vast area of land that formed the largest empire in history.

Mongols

          The Mongols roamed in search of fresh grassland for their sheeps, goats and horses. They carried their felt houses with them on ox carts. They drank fresh mares' milk. They also fermented the milk in skin bangs hung from wooden frames to make a strong drink kumiss. At victory celebrations, kumiss was drunk and fiddles strung with horsehair were played.

Mongol Army

Some timeline of Mongol Empire :

1206 : Temujin is chosen to be Khan of the Mongols. He takes the name of Genghis Khan.
1211 : The Mongol army attacks China.
1215 : Beijing, capital of China was taken by Mongols.
1217 : China and Korea are controlled by the Mongols.
1219 : The Mongols went to attack the empire of Khwarezm (Persia and Turkey).
1224 : Mongol armies invade Russia, then Poland and Hungary.
1227 : Genghis Khan dies. In 1229 his son Ogadai was chosen as new Khan.
1237 : Mongol generals Batu and Subotai invade northern Russia. Their army is known as the Golden Horde.
1241 : Ogadai dies. His armies pull back from Europe.

Takshashila - Worlds First and Oldest University

          Takshila (Takshashila in Sanskrit) is the oldest university in the world. Takshashila University was established sometime around the 8th Century B.C. in the Gandhar Mahajanapada. It is located in the Rawalpindi District of the Punjab province in Pakistan. It is said Taksha, an ancient king who ruled a kingdom called Taksha Khanda, the modern Tashkent founded the city of Takshashila. However in Sanskrit Takshashila, appears to contain the suffix shila, stone with the prefix Taksha, referring to Taksha, the son of Bharata and Mandavi, as described in the Ramayana. The city dates back to the Gandhara period and contains the ruins of the Gandharan city of Takshashila which was an important Hindu and Buddhist center, and is still considered a place of religious and historical sanctity in those traditions. In 1980, Takshila was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site with multiple locations.

          The site initially began to develop as a loosely connected group of buildings where learned persons resided, worked and taught. Over the years, additional buildings were added. Gradually a large campus developed with the donation of rulers and migration of more scholars. There were around 10,500 students. Not only Indians but also students from Babylonia, Greece, Syria, Arabia, Phoenicia and China came to study here. The curriculum consists of 68 elective courses and and the minimum entrance age was 16. Entrance to the university was a difficult process. Two out of three applications gets rejected for admission. Students were supposed to pay for their expenses. However, if a student was unable to pay then he could work for his teacher. There was a special academy for the princes, which had on its rolls 101 scholars. Another center of royal scions was the institute of military science, whose strength was 103 princes and at one time rose to 500. Besides these institutions, there were many other colleges, where instruction in archery, hunting, elephant-lore, political economy, law and other arts, humanities and sciences was imparted to students of high rank and caliber.

           Each teacher formed his own institution, enjoying complete autonomy in work, teaching as many students as he liked and teaching subjects he liked without confirming to any specific centralized syllabus. Study terminated when the teacher was satisfied with the student's level of achievement. The teachers were exempted from the payment of taxes. They were given ample amounts of money on the the occasion of various sacrifices and rituals as well.

           A wide range of subjects were taught by experienced teachers: Vedas, Language, Grammar, Philosophy, Medicine, Surgery, Archery, Politics, Warfare, Astronomy, Astrology, Accounts, Commerce, Futurology, Documentation, Occult, Music, Dance etc. Students from Magadha traveled the vast distances of northern India in order to join the schools and colleges of Takshashila. From Pali texts, it is evidence of the Brahmana youths, Khattriya princes and sons of Setthis from Rajagriha, Kashi, Kosala and other places went to Takshashila for learning the Vedas and eighteen sciences and arts. The panel of teachers included renowned names like Kautilya (the author of the “Arthashastra”), Panini (the codifier of Sanskrit into today’s form), Jivak (medicine specialist) and Vishnu Sharma (author and compiler of the Panchtantra).

          When Alexander’s armies came to the Punjab in the fourth century B.C., Takshashila had already developed a reputation as an important center of learning. Thus on his return, Alexander took many scholars from there with him to Greece. Being near the north-west frontier of India, Takshashila had to face the attacks and invasions from the north and the west. Thus the Persians, Greeks, Parthians, Shakas and Kushanas laid their destructive marks on this institution. However, the final blow came from the Huns  in 450 A.D., who razed the institution. When the Chinese traveler Huen T’sang (A.D. 603-64) visited Takshashila, the town had lost all its former grandeur and international character.

Bhubaneswar, the Temple City

          With the eastern Gangas in power since 11th century, Bhubaneswar became an important religious center filled with many temples in the nagara style. At one time, there were 7000 buildings grouped around BinduSagara, the sacred pool, but today there are only few hundreds. The temples of Bhubaneswar are for the most part built of stand-stone without cement, with plinths and enclosure walls made from laterite clay. They were constructed over 3 periods: the early 7th-10th centuries, of which important examples are Parashurameswar and Vaital Deul temples; the middle period, 10th-12th centuries, of which Mukteswar, Brahmeswar, Lingaraja and the Jagannatha temple at Puri; and the late period, 12th-13th centuries, of which Rajarani and Ananta Basudeva are the principal monuments.

           The 7th century Parashurameswar is one of the oldest temples of all. It is small and stands directly on the ground with no platform.

Parashurameswara Temple

           Vaital Deul, dating from 8th-9th centuries is an example of khakhara deul, a temple covered by a rectangular cupola similar to half a watermelon from which it takes its name khakhara. The nearby Shishireswar temple, also decorated with elegant sculptures, is attributed to the same period.

Vaital Deul

          The jewel in Odisha's architectural crown in Mukteswar Temple, dating from 950-975 AD and standing on  a low platform. It is a typical example of a pancharatna , a temple with five projections. The most characteristic element of this temple is the torana detached from the main building. The torana is presented as an arch built with horizontally as opposed to radially-set stones and decorated with reclining figures on two floral capitals. A nearby pool for ablutions, particularly frequented by women afflicted by sterility. Not far away, Gauri temple is very similar to Mukteswar temple probably from same period famous for its wonderful decoration.

Mukteswar Temple

          Brahmeswar temple was built in 11th century between two enclosing walls on a platform using the panchayatana layout (a central temple with four minor temples at the corners and is reflected in a square pool). It is mainly decorated with mithunas (pairs of lovers) and kanyas (divine girls). The jagamohana has a lotus flower ceiling with nagas at the corners.

Brahmeswara Temple

           Lingaraja temple was built from 1000-1040 AD. It represents the nagara style. Besides the rekha deul and jagamohana it has a natamandira (dance hall) and a bhogamandapa (offerings hall). The 146 feet high shikhara boasts 10 floors and vertically emphasized by the unbroken anghashikhara that overlay the projecting bands. One of the many annexes surrounding the  Lingaraja is the temple of Parvati  from 8th century. It has the same four part structure and refined decoration of Lingaraja. 

Lingaraja Temple

          Rajarani temple was built during the first half of 12th century is famous for the beauty of its statues. It is different from other temples for its unusual shikhara, similar to that of Khajuraho. It has anghashikhara added to the main body of the tower but here they do not overlap as in other temples. The images of the digapalas on the corners jutting out from the walls of the inner sanctum. The entrance is decorated with effigies of nine planets and nagins. There are various sculptures in the walls around the temple and the vimana, depicting scenes of the marriage of Shiva, Nataraja, Parvati, in various roles and moods such as turning her head from an emaciated ascetic, fondling her child, holding a branch of tree, attending to her toilet, looking into a mirror, taking off her anklet, caressing her pet bird and playing a musical instrument.

Rajarani Temple

          Ananta Vasudeba is the only temple in Bhubaneswar dedicated to Lord Vishnu with a ground plan similar to Lingaraja. It was built in 1278 by the princess Chandradevi. A lot other temples are evidence of past splendor of Bhubaneswar projecting the beauty in the details of their architecture, statues and decorations.

Ananta Vasudeva Temple